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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<title>Python Quick Reference</title>
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com">
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com" crossorigin>
<link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Inter:wght@400;500;600;700&family=IBM+Plex+Mono:wght@400;500;600;700&family=JetBrains+Mono:wght@400;500;700&display=swap" rel="stylesheet">
<style>
/* ============================================================
DESIGN TOKENS
Subject: Python source files & the REPL. Section eyebrows read
like module paths (python.strings.methods); card headers read
like a docstring/REPL line. Blue = builtins, amber = methods,
teal = stdlib modules, violet = keywords/syntax.
============================================================ */
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box-shadow:var(--shadow);
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main{padding:20px 16px 100px;}
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}
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}
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<div class="tree-root">python_quick_reference/</div>
<a href="#basics"><span class="num">01</span>Basics</a>
<a href="#builtins"><span class="num">02</span>Built-in Functions</a>
<a href="#strings"><span class="num">03</span>Strings</a>
<a href="#lists"><span class="num">04</span>Lists</a>
<a href="#tuples"><span class="num">05</span>Tuples</a>
<a href="#sets"><span class="num">06</span>Sets</a>
<a href="#dicts"><span class="num">07</span>Dictionaries</a>
<a href="#control-flow"><span class="num">08</span>Control Flow</a>
<a href="#comprehensions"><span class="num">09</span>Comprehensions</a>
<a href="#functions"><span class="num">10</span>Functions</a>
<a href="#lambda-functional"><span class="num">11</span>Lambda & Functional</a>
<a href="#iterators-generators"><span class="num">12</span>Iterators & Generators</a>
<a href="#oop"><span class="num">13</span>OOP</a>
<a href="#exceptions"><span class="num">14</span>Exceptions</a>
<a href="#file-handling"><span class="num">15</span>File Handling</a>
<a href="#modules-imports"><span class="num">16</span>Modules & Imports</a>
<a href="#stdlib"><span class="num">17</span>Standard Library</a>
<a href="#regex"><span class="num">18</span>Regular Expressions</a>
<a href="#datetime-ref"><span class="num">19</span>Date & Time</a>
<a href="#patterns"><span class="num">20</span>Data Patterns</a>
<a href="#syntax-glance"><span class="num">21</span>Syntax at a Glance</a>
<a href="#decorators"><span class="num">22</span>Decorators</a>
<a href="#context-managers"><span class="num">23</span>Context Managers</a>
<a href="#type-hints"><span class="num">24</span>Type Hints</a>
<a href="#dataclasses"><span class="num">25</span>Dataclasses</a>
<a href="#async"><span class="num">26</span>Async Python</a>
<a href="#operators"><span class="num">27</span>Special Syntax / Operators</a>
<a href="#mistakes"><span class="num">28</span>Common Mistakes</a>
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<main id="mainContent">
<section class="ref-section" id="basics">
<div class="section-head">
<h2><span class="idx">01</span> Basics</h2>
<button class="collapse-btn" data-collapse>collapse</button>
</div>
<p class="eyebrow">python.basics</p>
<p class="section-desc">Core building blocks: comments, variables, naming, I/O, and every operator category. Reference covers <strong>Python 3.12+</strong> (notes flag anything version-specific).</p>
<div class="section-body">
<h3 class="sub">Comments</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre># single-line comment
"""
Multi-line string used
as a block comment (not a true comment,
but the common convention)
"""</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Variables & multiple assignment</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>x = 10 # dynamic typing, no declaration keyword
name = "Rushit"
a, b, c = 1, 2, 3 # multiple assignment
x = y = z = 0 # chained assignment
a, b = b, a # swap without a temp variable</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Constants & naming conventions</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>MAX_SIZE = 100 # convention only — Python has no true constants
PI = 3.14159
# naming conventions
variable_name = 1 # snake_case for variables/functions
class ClassName: ... # PascalCase for classes
_private = 1 # leading underscore: "internal use" hint
__very_private = 1 # name-mangled inside classes
__dunder__ = 1 # reserved for language/magic methods</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Input / Output</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>name = input("Enter name: ") # ALWAYS returns a str
age = int(input("Age: ")) # convert manually if you need a number
print("Hello", name, sep=", ", end="!\n")
print(f"{name} is {age}") # f-string (see Strings section)</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button>
<div class="out"><span class="lbl">note</span>print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=sys.stdout, flush=False)</div></div>
<h3 class="sub">Type conversion & inspection</h3>
<p class="lead">Conversion functions (<code class="inline">int()</code>, <code class="inline">float()</code>, <code class="inline">str()</code>, <code class="inline">list()</code>…) are documented as built-ins below. Quick inspection tools:</p>
<div class="code-block"><pre>type(3.14) # -> <class 'float'>
isinstance(3.14, float) # -> True
isinstance(3, (int, float)) # -> True (tuple of types allowed)
id(name) # -> unique memory identity (int)
help(str.split) # -> interactive docs in the REPL
dir(list) # -> list of all attributes/methods</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Operators</h3>
<div class="table-wrap"><table>
<caption>Arithmetic</caption>
<thead><tr><th>Op</th><th>Meaning</th><th>Example</th><th>Result</th></tr></thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td><code>+</code></td><td>Add</td><td><code>5 + 2</code></td><td><code>7</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>-</code></td><td>Subtract</td><td><code>5 - 2</code></td><td><code>3</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>*</code></td><td>Multiply</td><td><code>5 * 2</code></td><td><code>10</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>/</code></td><td>True division (always float)</td><td><code>5 / 2</code></td><td><code>2.5</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>//</code></td><td>Floor division</td><td><code>5 // 2</code></td><td><code>2</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>%</code></td><td>Modulo (remainder)</td><td><code>5 % 2</code></td><td><code>1</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>**</code></td><td>Exponent</td><td><code>5 ** 2</code></td><td><code>25</code></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div>
<div class="table-wrap"><table>
<caption>Comparison & Logical</caption>
<thead><tr><th>Op</th><th>Meaning</th><th>Example</th><th>Result</th></tr></thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td><code>==</code> <code>!=</code></td><td>Equal / not equal</td><td><code>3 == 3</code></td><td><code>True</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>></code> <code><</code> <code>>=</code> <code><=</code></td><td>Ordering</td><td><code>5 >= 5</code></td><td><code>True</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>and</code></td><td>Both truthy</td><td><code>True and False</code></td><td><code>False</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>or</code></td><td>Either truthy</td><td><code>True or False</code></td><td><code>True</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>not</code></td><td>Negation</td><td><code>not True</code></td><td><code>False</code></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div>
<div class="table-wrap"><table>
<caption>Assignment</caption>
<thead><tr><th>Op</th><th>Same as</th></tr></thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td><code>+= -= *= /=</code></td><td><code>x = x + y</code>, etc.</td></tr>
<tr><td><code>//= %= **=</code></td><td>floor-div / mod / power, in place</td></tr>
<tr><td><code>&= |= ^= >>= <<=</code></td><td>bitwise, in place</td></tr>
</tbody></table></div>
<div class="table-wrap"><table>
<caption>Bitwise (operate on integer bit patterns)</caption>
<thead><tr><th>Op</th><th>Meaning</th><th>Example</th><th>Result</th></tr></thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td><code>&</code></td><td>AND</td><td><code>6 & 3</code></td><td><code>2</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>|</code></td><td>OR</td><td><code>6 | 3</code></td><td><code>7</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>^</code></td><td>XOR</td><td><code>6 ^ 3</code></td><td><code>5</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>~</code></td><td>NOT (invert bits)</td><td><code>~6</code></td><td><code>-7</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code><<</code></td><td>Left shift</td><td><code>1 << 3</code></td><td><code>8</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>>></code></td><td>Right shift</td><td><code>8 >> 2</code></td><td><code>2</code></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div>
<div class="table-wrap"><table>
<caption>Membership & Identity</caption>
<thead><tr><th>Op</th><th>Meaning</th><th>Example</th></tr></thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td><code>in</code></td><td>Value exists in container</td><td><code>3 in [1,2,3]</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>not in</code></td><td>Value absent</td><td><code>5 not in [1,2,3]</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>is</code></td><td>Same object identity (not equality)</td><td><code>a is b</code></td></tr>
<tr><td><code>is not</code></td><td>Different identity</td><td><code>a is not None</code></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div>
<h3 class="sub">Operator precedence (high → low, abridged)</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>() # grouping
** # exponent (right-assoc)
+x -x ~x # unary
* / // %
+ -
<< >>
&
^
|
== != < > <= >= is is not in not in
not
and
or
:= (walrus, lowest — used as an expression)</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<div class="rc-note" style="background:var(--surface-2);border-radius:8px;padding:8px 10px;font-size:12.5px;color:var(--text-muted);">When in doubt, use parentheses — precedence bugs are hard to spot on re-read.</div>
<h3 class="sub">Walrus operator <code class="inline">:=</code> <span class="pybadge">3.8+</span></h3>
<p class="lead">Assigns and returns a value in the same expression — useful in <code class="inline">while</code>/<code class="inline">if</code> conditions and comprehensions.</p>
<div class="code-block"><pre># without walrus
data = get_data()
while data:
process(data)
data = get_data()
# with walrus
while (data := get_data()):
process(data)
# in a comprehension
results = [y for x in values if (y := transform(x)) is not None]</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
</div>
</section>
<section class="ref-section" id="builtins">
<div class="section-head">
<h2><span class="idx">02</span> Built-in Functions</h2>
<button class="collapse-btn" data-collapse>collapse</button>
</div>
<p class="eyebrow">python.builtins — docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html</p>
<p class="section-desc">All 69 built-ins always available with no import. Search above or scan cards below — each shows syntax, parameters, a working example, and its official doc link.</p>
<div class="section-body">
<div class="card-grid" id="builtinsGrid"></div>
</div>
</section>
<section class="ref-section" id="strings">
<div class="section-head">
<h2><span class="idx">03</span> Strings</h2>
<button class="collapse-btn" data-collapse>collapse</button>
</div>
<p class="eyebrow">python.str</p>
<p class="section-desc">Strings are immutable sequences of Unicode code points.</p>
<div class="section-body">
<h3 class="sub">Creating strings</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>'single quotes'
"double quotes"
'''triple single —
spans multiple lines'''
"""triple double — same, and the
convention for docstrings"""
r"raw string — \n is two chars, not a newline" # great for regex / Windows paths
f"f-string — inline {1 + 1} expressions" # see below</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Indexing, slicing & core operations</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>s = "Python"
s[0] # 'P' (indexing)
s[-1] # 'n' (negative indexing, from the end)
s[1:4] # 'yth' (slicing: start:stop, stop excluded)
s[::-1] # 'nohtyP' (reverse via step -1)
s[::2] # 'Pto' (every 2nd char)
s + "3" # 'Python3' (concatenation)
s * 2 # 'PythonPython' (repetition)
'y' in s # True (membership)
s == "Python" # True (comparison, case-sensitive)</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">f-strings & format specifiers</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>name, pi = "Rushit", 3.14159
f"{name} scored {pi:.2f}" # -> 'Rushit scored 3.14' (2 decimal places)
f"{42:05d}" # -> '00042' (zero-padded width 5)
f"{1234567:,}" # -> '1,234,567' (thousands separator)
f"{pi:>10.2f}" # -> ' 3.14' (right-align, width 10)
f"{name=}" # -> "name='Rushit'" (debug spec, 3.8+)</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Escape characters & multiline</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>"Line1\nLine2" # \n newline, \t tab, \\ backslash, \' \" quotes
"""
This spans
multiple physical lines
"""</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">String methods</h3>
<div class="card-grid" id="stringMethodsGrid"></div>
</div>
</section>
<section class="ref-section" id="lists">
<div class="section-head">
<h2><span class="idx">04</span> Lists</h2>
<button class="collapse-btn" data-collapse>collapse</button>
</div>
<p class="eyebrow">python.list — mutable, ordered sequence</p>
<div class="section-body">
<h3 class="sub">Creating & core operations</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>nums = [1, 2, 3]
mixed = [1, "two", 3.0, [4, 5]] # nested list
empty = []
nums[0] # 1 indexing
nums[-1] # 3 negative indexing
nums[0:2] # [1, 2] slicing
nested = [[1,2],[3,4]]
nested[1][0] # 3 nested access
a, b, c = nums # unpacking
first, *rest = nums # first=1, rest=[2, 3]
[1,2] + [3,4] # [1, 2, 3, 4] concatenation
[1,2] * 3 # [1,2,1,2,1,2] repetition
2 in nums # True membership</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">List methods</h3>
<div class="card-grid" id="listMethodsGrid"></div>
<h3 class="sub"><code class="inline">sorted()</code> vs <code class="inline">.sort()</code></h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>nums = [3, 1, 2]
new_list = sorted(nums) # returns a NEW sorted list; nums unchanged
nums.sort() # sorts IN PLACE; returns None (common bug: x = nums.sort())</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Shallow copy vs reference</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>a = [1, 2, 3]
b = a # reference — b and a point to the SAME list
b.append(4) # a is now [1, 2, 3, 4] too!
c = a.copy() # or list(a), or a[:] — shallow copy, new outer list
c.append(5) # a is unaffected
import copy
d = copy.deepcopy(a) # needed when a contains nested mutable objects</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">List comprehensions</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>squares = [x**2 for x in range(6)] # [0,1,4,9,16,25]
evens = [x for x in range(10) if x % 2 == 0] # conditional
grid = [[r*3+c for c in range(3)] for r in range(3)] # nested
tagged = ["even" if x%2==0 else "odd" for x in range(4)] # if/else expr form</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button>
<div class="out"><span class="lbl">see also</span>full Comprehensions section (09) for dict/set/generator forms</div></div>
</div>
</section>
<section class="ref-section" id="tuples">
<div class="section-head">
<h2><span class="idx">05</span> Tuples</h2>
<button class="collapse-btn" data-collapse>collapse</button>
</div>
<p class="eyebrow">python.tuple — immutable, ordered sequence</p>
<div class="section-body">
<div class="code-block"><pre>t = (1, 2, 3)
single = (5,) # the COMMA makes it a tuple, not the parens
not_a_tuple = (5) # this is just int 5
t[0] # 1 indexing
t[1:] # (2, 3) slicing
nested = (1, (2, 3), [4, 5])
a, b, c = t # unpacking
first, *rest = t # first=1, rest=[2, 3]
t.count(2) # 1 only 2 methods exist: count, index
t.index(3) # 2</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<div class="table-wrap"><table>
<caption>Tuple vs List</caption>
<thead><tr><th></th><th>Tuple</th><th>List</th></tr></thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td>Mutable</td><td>No</td><td>Yes</td></tr>
<tr><td>Syntax</td><td><code>(1, 2)</code></td><td><code>[1, 2]</code></td></tr>
<tr><td>Methods</td><td><code>count</code>, <code>index</code></td><td>11 methods (append, sort, …)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Hashable</td><td>Yes (if elements are)</td><td>No — can't be a dict key</td></tr>
<tr><td>Typical use</td><td>Fixed records, dict keys, function returns</td><td>Growing collections</td></tr>
</tbody></table></div>
</div>
</section>
<section class="ref-section" id="sets">
<div class="section-head">
<h2><span class="idx">06</span> Sets</h2>
<button class="collapse-btn" data-collapse>collapse</button>
</div>
<p class="eyebrow">python.set — unordered, unique elements</p>
<div class="section-body">
<div class="code-block"><pre>s = {1, 2, 3}
empty = set() # NOT {} — that creates an empty dict!
s.add(4)
s.remove(1) # KeyError if missing
s.discard(99) # no error if missing
a, b = {1,2,3}, {2,3,4}
a | b # union -> {1,2,3,4}
a & b # intersection -> {2,3}
a - b # difference -> {1}
a ^ b # symmetric difference -> {1,4}
a <= b # subset? -> False
a >= b # superset? -> False
a.isdisjoint(b) # False (they share elements)
evens = {x for x in range(10) if x % 2 == 0} # set comprehension
frozen = frozenset([1, 2, 3]) # immutable, hashable set</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Set methods</h3>
<div class="card-grid" id="setMethodsGrid"></div>
</div>
</section>
<section class="ref-section" id="dicts">
<div class="section-head">
<h2><span class="idx">07</span> Dictionaries</h2>
<button class="collapse-btn" data-collapse>collapse</button>
</div>
<p class="eyebrow">python.dict — key-value mapping, insertion-ordered (3.7+)</p>
<div class="section-body">
<div class="code-block"><pre>d = {"name": "Rushit", "year": 2}
d["name"] # 'Rushit' access (KeyError if missing)
d.get("gpa") # None .get() — safe, no KeyError
d.get("gpa", 0.0) # 0.0 .get() with default
d["year"] = 3 # update
d["branch"] = "CS" # add new key
del d["branch"] # remove
d.pop("year") # remove + return value
nested = {"student": {"name": "Rushit", "skills": ["Python", "SQL"]}}
nested["student"]["skills"]
merged = {**d, **{"gpa": 8.5}} # dict unpacking merge (or d | other, 3.9+)
d.keys() # view of keys (dict_keys)
d.values() # view of values
d.items() # view of (key, value) pairs</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Dictionary methods</h3>
<div class="card-grid" id="dictMethodsGrid"></div>
<h3 class="sub">Comprehension & iteration patterns</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>squares = {x: x**2 for x in range(5)} # dict comprehension
for k in d: ... # iterates keys
for k in d.keys(): ... # same, explicit
for v in d.values(): ... # iterates values
for k, v in d.items(): ... # iterates pairs (most common)</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
</div>
</section>
<section class="ref-section" id="control-flow">
<div class="section-head">
<h2><span class="idx">08</span> Control Flow</h2>
<button class="collapse-btn" data-collapse>collapse</button>
</div>
<p class="eyebrow">python.control_flow</p>
<div class="section-body">
<div class="code-block"><pre>if score >= 90:
grade = "A"
elif score >= 75:
grade = "B"
else:
grade = "C"
grade = "A" if score >= 90 else "B" # ternary / conditional expression
for i in range(5): # 0..4
if i == 3:
break # exit loop entirely
if i == 1:
continue # skip to next iteration
print(i)
else:
print("loop finished without break") # runs only if no break
while attempts < 3:
attempts += 1
else:
print("while finished without break")
if debug:
pass # no-op placeholder</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub"><code class="inline">match / case</code> <span class="pybadge">3.10+</span></h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>match command.split():
case ["go", direction] if direction in ("n","s","e","w"):
move(direction)
case ["go", _]:
print("unknown direction")
case ["quit"]:
exit()
case _:
print("unrecognized command") # wildcard / default</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
</div>
</section>
<section class="ref-section" id="comprehensions">
<div class="section-head">
<h2><span class="idx">09</span> Comprehensions</h2>
<button class="collapse-btn" data-collapse>collapse</button>
</div>
<p class="eyebrow">python.comprehensions — loop, condition and expression fused into one line</p>
<div class="section-body">
<div class="code-block"><pre># normal approach
squares = []
for x in range(10):
squares.append(x**2)
# comprehension approach
squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]
# list comprehension with condition
evens = [x for x in range(10) if x % 2 == 0]
# nested list comprehension (flatten a 2D grid)
grid = [[1,2],[3,4]]
flat = [n for row in grid for n in row] # [1, 2, 3, 4]
# dict comprehension
squares_map = {x: x**2 for x in range(5)}
# set comprehension
unique_lengths = {len(w) for w in ["hi","bye","yo"]}
# generator expression — lazy, computed one item at a time, no [] brackets
gen = (x**2 for x in range(10**6)) # doesn't build the whole list in memory
sum(x**2 for x in range(10)) # generator expr passed directly to sum()</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
</div>
</section>
<section class="ref-section" id="functions">
<div class="section-head">
<h2><span class="idx">10</span> Functions</h2>
<button class="collapse-btn" data-collapse>collapse</button>
</div>
<p class="eyebrow">python.functions</p>
<div class="section-body">
<h3 class="sub">Defining & calling</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>def greet(name, greeting="Hello"):
"""Return a greeting string. (this is a docstring)"""
return f"{greeting}, {name}!"
greet("Rushit") # positional argument -> uses default greeting
greet("Rushit", greeting="Hi") # keyword argument
greet(name="Rushit", greeting="Hi")</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Parameter kinds compared</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>def f(a, b): # positional or keyword — most common
...
def f(a, b=10): # default argument — evaluated ONCE at def time (careful with mutables)
...
def f(*args): # collects extra positional args into a tuple
...
def f(**kwargs): # collects extra keyword args into a dict
...
def f(a, /, b, *, c): # a = positional-only, b = either, c = keyword-only
... # / marks end of positional-only section
# * marks start of keyword-only section
def f(a, b, *args, c, **kwargs): # realistic mix, all forms together
...</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Return values</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>def divmod_(a, b):
return a // b, a % b # multiple return values -> packed as a tuple
q, r = divmod_(17, 5) # unpacked on the caller's side -> q=3, r=2</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Annotations, scope & closures</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>def add(a: int, b: int) -> int: # annotations — hints only, not enforced at runtime
return a + b
count = 0
def increment():
global count # without this, count += 1 below raises UnboundLocalError
count += 1
def outer():
total = 0
def inner(x):
nonlocal total # modifies the ENCLOSING function's variable, not global
total += x
inner(5)
return total
def make_multiplier(n): # closure: inner() "remembers" n after make_multiplier returns
def multiplier(x):
return x * n
return multiplier
times3 = make_multiplier(3)
times3(10) # -> 30</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
<h3 class="sub">Recursion, first-class & higher-order functions</h3>
<div class="code-block"><pre>def factorial(n):
return 1 if n <= 1 else n * factorial(n - 1) # recursion
def apply_twice(fn, x): # functions are first-class: pass them like any value
return fn(fn(x))
apply_twice(lambda x: x*2, 3) # -> 12 (higher-order function: takes a function as arg)</pre><button class="copy-btn">Copy</button></div>
</div>
</section>
<section class="ref-section" id="lambda-functional">