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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<title>Irish IPA Transcription - Help</title>
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<body>
<div id="content">
<h1>Irish IPA Transcription - Help</h1>
<p style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between; align-items: center;">
<span><a href="../?lang=Irish">← Back to Irish transcription</a></span>
<span><a href="index.html">↑ All Languages</a></span>
</p>
<h2>Table of Contents</h2>
<ul>
<li><strong>Getting Started</strong>
<ul>
<li><a href="#about">About This Tool</a></li>
<li><a href="#dialects">Dialects: Connacht, Munster & Ulster</a></li>
<li><a href="#forms">Phonemic vs Phonetic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#glossary">Quick Reference (Glossary)</a></li>
<li><a href="#reading-ipa">How to Read IPA Symbols</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="#vowels">Vowel Symbols</a></li>
<li><a href="#consonant-symbols">Consonant Symbols</a></li>
<li><a href="#diacritics">Diacritical Marks</a></li>
<li><a href="#interactive">Interactive Features</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Irish Pronunciation Guide</strong>
<ul>
<li><a href="#broad-slender">Broad vs Slender (Caol vs Leathan)</a></li>
<li><a href="#vowel-length">Vowel Length & Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="#stress">Stress Patterns</a></li>
<li><a href="#lenition">Lenition (Séimhiú)</a></li>
<li><a href="#eclipsis">Eclipsis (Urú)</a></li>
<li><a href="#vowel-digraphs">Vowel Digraphs & Diphthongs</a></li>
<li><a href="#consonant-clusters">Consonant Clusters</a></li>
<li><a href="#epenthesis">Epenthesis (Svarabhakti)</a></li>
<li><a href="#sonorants">Sonorants: L, N, R</a></li>
<li><a href="#final-coda">Word-Final Codas</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Orthography to IPA Mapping</strong>
<ul>
<li><a href="#comprehensive-mapping">Comprehensive Mapping Tables</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Dialect Comparison</strong>
<ul>
<li><a href="#dialect-connacht">Connacht Features</a></li>
<li><a href="#dialect-munster">Munster Features</a></li>
<li><a href="#dialect-ulster">Ulster Features</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>For Developers</strong>
<ul>
<li><a href="#technical">Implementation Details</a></li>
<li><a href="#issues">Common Issues & Limitations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h2 id="about">About This Tool</h2>
<h3>Irish Dialects</h3>
<p>Irish (Gaeilge) has three major dialect groups — Connacht, Munster, and Ulster — each with distinct phonological
patterns. This tool supports all three dialects. Key dialectal differences include vowel quality (e.g.,
Connacht /aː/ vs Munster /æː/), consonant realization (e.g., word-final broad bh/mh → vˠ/vʲ in Connacht,
weakened to w in some Ulster varieties), and stress placement (Munster attracts stress to sonorant-onset
syllables). See the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Template:IPA/Irish">Wiktionary IPA/Irish module</a>
for the full reference.</p>
<p>This <a href="../?lang=Irish">Irish transcription app</a> uses a custom 17-pass phonological rule engine to
generate IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) transcriptions for Irish text. Unlike other languages on this
site, there is no Wiktionary pronunciation module for Irish — Irish IPA on Wiktionary is hand-entered per word.
This engine provides automatic grapheme-to-phoneme (G2P) conversion for all three major dialects, making it the
first browser-based automatic Irish IPA generator.</p>
<p>The engine uses a hybrid architecture: a 17-pass phonological rule pipeline based on Irish linguistics
literature (Hickey 2014, Fuaimeanna na Gaeilge) plus a generated per-dialect lexical exception layer for
known words. When a word is in the exception dictionary, the lexicon entry overrides the rule output for
maximum accuracy. For unknown words, the rule-only output provides the best available generalization.</p>
<h2 id="dialects">Dialects: Connacht, Munster & Ulster</h2>
<p>Irish has three major spoken dialects, each with distinct phonological systems. This tool supports all three:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Connacht</strong> (primary target, most tuned): Spoken in counties Galway and Mayo. Features
include anticipatory raising (coláiste → [kʊlˠaːʃtʲə]), broad l/n as denti-alveolar [l̪ˠ]/[n̪ˠ], and
slender coda vowel gradation.</li>
<li><strong>Munster</strong> (Southern, Kerry/Cork): Distinctive stress attraction to long vowels in
non-initial syllables (cailín → [kaˈlʲiːnʲ]), éa-breaking ([eː] → [iːa̯]), epenthesis in obstruent+sonorant
clusters, final -igh/-aigh → [ɪɟ], and verbal -f(e)adh → [əx].</li>
<li><strong>Ulster</strong> (Northern, Donegal): Extensive post-tonic long-vowel shortening (scadán →
[ˈsˠkad̪ˠənˠ]), a-fronting before slender consonants (baile → [ˈbˠælʲə]), o/u merger to [ʌ], ch-weakening
[x]→[h], final vowel realizations (-adh→[u], -igh→[i]), and vowel nasalization before surviving mh.</li>
</ul>
<h2 id="forms">Phonemic vs Phonetic</h2>
<ul>
<li><strong>Phonemic</strong>: A broad transcription based on the rule pipeline + lexical exceptions.
Represents the abstract phoneme system of the selected dialect.</li>
<li><strong>Phonetic</strong>: Not currently available for Irish. The engine produces phonemic output
with some allophonic detail (quality diacritics, stress placement).</li>
</ul>
<h2 id="glossary">Quick Reference (Glossary)</h2>
<dl>
<dt>Broad / Slender (Caol / Leathan)</dt>
<dd>The fundamental distinction in Irish phonology. Consonants are marked as <strong>broad</strong>
(velarized, <span class="ipa">ˠ</span>) when adjacent to broad vowels (a, o, u) or <strong>slender</strong>
(palatalized, <span class="ipa">ʲ</span>) when adjacent to slender vowels (e, i). This distinction changes
meaning: <em>bó</em> [bˠoː] (cow) vs <em>beo</em> [bʲoː] (alive).</dd>
<dt>Lenition (Séimhiú)</dt>
<dd>A grammatical mutation that turns stops into fricatives: b→bh [vˠ/vʲ], c→ch [x/ç], d→dh [ɣ/ɟ/j],
g→gh [ɣ/ɟ/j], m→mh [w/vˠ/vʲ], p→ph [fˠ/fʲ], s→sh [h/ç], t→th [h/ç]. Marked by adding ⟨h⟩ after
the consonant.</dd>
<dt>Eclipsis (Urú)</dt>
<dd>A grammatical mutation where voiced stops become nasals and voiceless stops become voiced:
b→mb [m], c→gc [g], d→nd [n], f→bhf [w/vˠ], g→ng [ŋ], p→bp [b], t→dt [d]. Marked by a prefix.</dd>
<dt>Velarization (Broad)</dt>
<dd>A secondary articulation marked by <span class="ipa">ˠ</span>, where the back of the tongue is
raised toward the velum during consonant articulation. Gives a "dark" quality, noticeable on l [l̪ˠ] vs [lʲ].</dd>
<dt>Palatalization (Slender)</dt>
<dd>A secondary articulation marked by <span class="ipa">ʲ</span>, where the tongue body is raised
toward the hard palate during consonant articulation. Gives a "light" or "y-like" quality.</dd>
<dt>Dental Consonant</dt>
<dd>Broad coronal consonants (t, d, l, n) are articulated with the tongue against the upper teeth
in Irish, marked with <span class="ipa">̪</span>: <span class="ipa">t̪ˠ, d̪ˠ, l̪ˠ, n̪ˠ</span>.</dd>
<dt>Postalveolar Consonant</dt>
<dd>Slender coronal consonants (t, d, l, n) are articulated with the tongue blade against the postalveolar
region in many dialects, marked with <span class="ipa">̠</span>: <span class="ipa">t̠ʲ, d̠ʲ, l̠ʲ, n̠ʲ</span>.</dd>
<dt>Schwa</dt>
<dd>A neutral vowel sound <span class="ipa">ə</span>, common in unstressed syllables — the default
reduced vowel in Irish.</dd>
<dt>Fada (Síneadh Fada)</dt>
<dd>The acute accent over vowels (á, é, í, ó, ú) marking them as long. This is phonemic: <em>cas</em>
[kasˠ] (turn) vs <em>cás</em> [kɑːsˠ] (case).</dd>
<dt>Diphthong</dt>
<dd>A gliding vowel sound where the tongue changes position during articulation. Irish has several
from vowel+fricative vocalization: <span class="ipa">əu</span> (from -abh/-amh), <span class="ipa">iə</span>
(from -ia-), <span class="ipa">uə</span> (from -ua-).</dd>
<dt>Anticipatory Raising</dt>
<dd>A Connacht feature where short /a/ or /o/ in the first syllable raises to [ɪ]/[ʊ] when followed
by a syllable with long [aː]: <em>coláiste</em> [kʊlˠaːʃtʲə], <em>caisleán</em> [kɪʃlʲɑːnˠ].</dd>
<dt>Svarabhakti (Epenthesis)</dt>
<dd>An epenthetic vowel [ə] inserted between heterorganic sonorant+obstruent clusters: <em>dearg</em>
[ˈdʲaɾˠəɡ], <em>gorm</em> [ˈɡɔɾˠəmˠ]. In Munster, extends to obstruent+sonorant clusters:
<em>ocrach</em> [ˈɔkɾˠəx] → [ˈɔkəɾˠəx].</dd>
<dt>Primary Stress</dt>
<dd>The main emphasis in a word (marked <span class="ipa">ˈ</span>). Defaults to the first syllable in
Connacht and Ulster, but attracted to long vowels in Munster.</dd>
<dt>Secondary Stress</dt>
<dd>Weaker emphasis (marked <span class="ipa">ˌ</span>) on later syllables in long words or compounds.</dd>
<dt>Devoicing</dt>
<dd>Word-final devoicing of voiced stops: <em>díobh</em> → final [vʲ]→[fʲ]. Also applies regressively
before certain suffixes.</dd>
<dt>Glide Insertion</dt>
<dd>Insertion of [j] or [w] between vowels in hiatus, or in Ulster word-final position after gh/dh
vocalization: <em>brúigh</em> → [bˠɾˠuːj].</dd>
</dl>
<h2 id="reading-ipa">How to Read IPA Symbols</h2>
<p>This table helps you understand the IPA symbols used in Irish transcriptions. For each symbol, we provide
approximate English equivalents where possible.</p>
<h3 id="vowels">Vowel Symbols</h3>
<p>Irish vowels come in short/long pairs. Quality varies significantly by dialect — the values below show the
Connacht system; see the Dialect Comparison section for Munster and Ulster variants.</p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>IPA</th>
<th>Orthography</th>
<th>English Approximation</th>
<th>Notes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/a/</span></td>
<td>a (short)</td>
<td>"cup" (UK)</td>
<td>Short front vowel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɑː/</span></td>
<td>á (long a)</td>
<td>"father"</td>
<td>Long back vowel (Connacht)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/aː/</span></td>
<td>á (long a)</td>
<td>"father"</td>
<td>Long central vowel (Ulster)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɛ/</span></td>
<td>e (short)</td>
<td>"bed"</td>
<td>Short mid front</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/eː/</span></td>
<td>é, éa, eo</td>
<td>"say" (without glide)</td>
<td>Pure long /e/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɪ/</span></td>
<td>i (short)</td>
<td>"sit"</td>
<td>Short lax high front</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/iː/</span></td>
<td>í, ao, aí</td>
<td>"see" (without glide)</td>
<td>Long high front</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɔ/</span></td>
<td>o (short)</td>
<td>"law" (UK)</td>
<td>Short mid back</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/oː/</span></td>
<td>ó, eo</td>
<td>"go" (without glide)</td>
<td>Long mid back</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ʊ/</span></td>
<td>u (short)</td>
<td>"put"</td>
<td>Short lax high back</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/uː/</span></td>
<td>ú</td>
<td>"food" (without glide)</td>
<td>Long high back</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ə/</span></td>
<td>unstressed vowels</td>
<td>"about"</td>
<td>Schwa, reduced vowel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/əu/</span></td>
<td>-abh-, -amh-</td>
<td>"goat" (Scottish)</td>
<td>Diphthong from bh/mh vocalization</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/au/</span></td>
<td>-abh-, -amh- (Ulster)</td>
<td>"cow"</td>
<td>Ulster open diphthong</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/iə/</span></td>
<td>ia</td>
<td>"fear" (without r)</td>
<td>Diphthong, i-glide to schwa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/uə/</span></td>
<td>ua</td>
<td>"truant" (without r)</td>
<td>Diphthong, u-glide to schwa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/iːa̯/</span></td>
<td>éa (Munster broken)</td>
<td>No English equivalent</td>
<td>Munster éa-breaking; prolonged i + a offglide</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ʌ/</span></td>
<td>o/u (Ulster short)</td>
<td>"cup"</td>
<td>Ulster o/u merger</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/æ/</span></td>
<td>a before slender C (Ulster)</td>
<td>"cat"</td>
<td>Ulster a-fronting</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="consonant-symbols">Consonant Symbols</h3>
<p>Irish consonants come in broad (velarized, <span class="ipa">ˠ</span>) and slender (palatalized, <span class="ipa">ʲ</span>) pairs. The place of articulation shifts as well — broad coronal consonants are dental, slender coronal consonants are postalveolar.</p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>IPA</th>
<th>Orthography</th>
<th>English Approximation</th>
<th>Notes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/pˠ/</span></td>
<td>p (broad)</td>
<td>"pot" (velarized)</td>
<td>Voiceless bilabial stop, broad</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/pʲ/</span></td>
<td>p (slender)</td>
<td>"pew"</td>
<td>Voiceless bilabial stop, palatalized</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/t̪ˠ/</span></td>
<td>t (broad)</td>
<td>"top" (dental)</td>
<td>Voiceless dental stop, broad</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/t̠ʲ/</span></td>
<td>t (slender)</td>
<td>"tune" (postalveolar)</td>
<td>Voiceless postalveolar stop, slender</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/d̪ˠ/</span></td>
<td>d (broad)</td>
<td>"dog" (dental)</td>
<td>Voiced dental stop, broad</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/d̠ʲ/</span></td>
<td>d (slender)</td>
<td>"dew" (postalveolar)</td>
<td>Voiced postalveolar stop, slender</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/k/</span></td>
<td>c (broad)</td>
<td>"cat"</td>
<td>Voiceless velar stop</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/c/</span></td>
<td>c (slender)</td>
<td>"cute" (without glide)</td>
<td>Voiceless palatal stop</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɡ/</span></td>
<td>g (broad)</td>
<td>"got"</td>
<td>Voiced velar stop</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɟ/</span></td>
<td>g (slender)</td>
<td>"argue" (without glide)</td>
<td>Voiced palatal stop</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/fˠ/</span></td>
<td>f (broad)</td>
<td>"fog" (velarized)</td>
<td>Voiceless labiodental fricative</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/fʲ/</span></td>
<td>f (slender)</td>
<td>"few"</td>
<td>Voiceless labiodental fricative, palatalized</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/vˠ/</span></td>
<td>bh/mh (broad)</td>
<td>"vow" (velarized)</td>
<td>Voiced labiodental fricative, broad</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/vʲ/</span></td>
<td>bh/mh (slender)</td>
<td>"view"</td>
<td>Voiced labiodental fricative, palatalized</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/w/</span></td>
<td>bh/mh (broad, lenited)</td>
<td>"wow"</td>
<td>Approximant realization after vowel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/sˠ/</span></td>
<td>s (broad)</td>
<td>"saw" (velarized)</td>
<td>Voiceless alveolar fricative, broad</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ʃ/</span></td>
<td>s (slender), sh</td>
<td>"show"</td>
<td>Voiceless postalveolar fricative</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/h/</span></td>
<td>h, th, sh (initial)</td>
<td>"hat"</td>
<td>Voiceless glottal fricative</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ç/</span></td>
<td>ch (slender), th (slender)</td>
<td>"huge" (stronger)</td>
<td>Voiceless palatal fricative</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/x/</span></td>
<td>ch (broad)</td>
<td>Scottish "loch"</td>
<td>Voiceless velar fricative</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɣ/</span></td>
<td>dh/gh (broad, lenited)</td>
<td>Spanish "amigo"</td>
<td>Voiced velar fricative</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/j/</span></td>
<td>dh/gh (slender, lenited)</td>
<td>"yes"</td>
<td>Voiced palatal approximant</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɾˠ/</span></td>
<td>r (broad)</td>
<td>"row" (tap, velarized)</td>
<td>Broad alveolar tap</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɾʲ/</span></td>
<td>r (slender)</td>
<td>"rye" (tap, palatalized)</td>
<td>Slender alveolar tap</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/l̪ˠ/</span></td>
<td>l (broad, dental)</td>
<td>"call" (dental, dark)</td>
<td>Broad denti-alveolar lateral</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/lˠ/</span></td>
<td>l (broad, non-dental)</td>
<td>"call" (dark)</td>
<td>Broad alveolar lateral (non-dental contexts)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/l̠ʲ/</span></td>
<td>l (slender, postalveolar)</td>
<td>"million" (retracted)</td>
<td>Slender postalveolar lateral</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/lʲ/</span></td>
<td>l (slender, plain)</td>
<td>"million"</td>
<td>Slender palatal lateral</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/n̪ˠ/</span></td>
<td>n (broad, dental)</td>
<td>"no" (dental, dark)</td>
<td>Broad denti-alveolar nasal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/nˠ/</span></td>
<td>n (broad, non-dental)</td>
<td>"no" (dark)</td>
<td>Broad alveolar nasal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/n̠ʲ/</span></td>
<td>n (slender, postalveolar)</td>
<td>"onion" (retracted)</td>
<td>Slender postalveolar nasal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/nʲ/</span></td>
<td>n (slender, plain)</td>
<td>"onion"</td>
<td>Slender palatal nasal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ŋ/</span></td>
<td>ng, n before g/c</td>
<td>"sing"</td>
<td>Velar nasal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/mˠ/</span></td>
<td>m (broad)</td>
<td>"mow" (velarized)</td>
<td>Bilabial nasal, broad</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/mʲ/</span></td>
<td>m (slender)</td>
<td>"mew"</td>
<td>Bilabial nasal, palatalized</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɟ/</span></td>
<td>-igh (Munster)</td>
<td>"argue" (without glide)</td>
<td>Munster palatal stop from -igh/-aigh</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="diacritics">Diacritical Marks</h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Symbol</th>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Meaning</th>
<th>Example</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">ˈ</span></td>
<td>Primary stress</td>
<td>Main emphasis in word</td>
<td><span class="ipa">ˈkalʲiːnʲ</span> (cailín, Connacht)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">ˌ</span></td>
<td>Secondary stress</td>
<td>Weaker emphasis</td>
<td><span class="ipa">ˌciːlʲ vˠɑn̪ˠˈt̪ˠɑːnʲ</span> (Cill Mhantáin)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">ː</span></td>
<td>Length mark</td>
<td>Vowel is long</td>
<td><span class="ipa">aː</span> vs <span class="ipa">a</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">ˠ</span></td>
<td>Velarized (broad)</td>
<td>Consonant has velar quality</td>
<td><span class="ipa">t̪ˠ, l̪ˠ, n̪ˠ, sˠ</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">ʲ</span></td>
<td>Palatalized (slender)</td>
<td>Consonant has palatal quality</td>
<td><span class="ipa">t̠ʲ, l̠ʲ, n̠ʲ, pʲ</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">̪</span></td>
<td>Dental</td>
<td>Consonant articulated at teeth</td>
<td><span class="ipa">t̪ˠ, d̪ˠ, l̪ˠ, n̪ˠ</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">̠</span></td>
<td>Postalveolar</td>
<td>Consonant articulated behind alveolar ridge</td>
<td><span class="ipa">t̠ʲ, d̠ʲ, l̠ʲ, n̠ʲ</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">̃</span></td>
<td>Nasalized</td>
<td>Vowel has nasal quality</td>
<td><span class="ipa">ɑ̃ː</span> (Ulster, before mh)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">e̯</span></td>
<td>Non-syllabic</td>
<td>Part of diphthong</td>
<td><span class="ipa">iːa̯</span> (Munster éa-breaking)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="ipa">j</span></td>
<td>Palatal glide</td>
<td>Glide after vowel</td>
<td><span class="ipa">bˠɾˠuːj</span> (Ulster, brúigh)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="interactive">Interactive Features</h3>
<ul>
<li><strong>Dialect selection:</strong> Choose Connacht, Munster, or Ulster from the Style dropdown to see
dialect-specific transcriptions. The same word can produce very different IPA across dialects.</li>
<li><strong>Audio playback:</strong> Click the <i class="icon icon-volume"></i> speaker icon next to any word or
line to hear text-to-speech pronunciation (requires browser TTS support for Irish, language code ga-IE).</li>
<li><strong>Export results:</strong> Use PDF or CSV buttons to save transcriptions in your preferred format.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Irish Pronunciation Guide</h2>
<p>This guide explains the fundamental rules of Irish pronunciation. Irish has a complex but largely regular
orthography once the rules of broad/slender consonant quality, vowel length, stress, and mutation are understood.</p>
<h3 id="broad-slender">Broad vs Slender (Caol vs Leathan)</h3>
<p>The single most important concept in Irish phonology: every consonant has two varieties depending on the
adjacent vowels. The rule is summarized: <strong>"caol le caol agus leathan le leathan"</strong> (slender with
slender and broad with broad).</p>
<h4>The Polarity Rule</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>Broad vowels</strong>: a, á, o, ó, u, ú — make adjacent consonants velarized [ˠ] and dental/coronal</li>
<li><strong>Slender vowels</strong>: e, é, i, í — make adjacent consonants palatalized [ʲ] and postalveolar</li>
</ul>
<h4>Effect on Consonant Quality</h4>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Consonant</th>
<th>Broad (velarized)</th>
<th>Slender (palatalized)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td>t</td><td><span class="ipa">t̪ˠ</span></td><td><span class="ipa">t̠ʲ</span></td></tr>
<tr><td>d</td><td><span class="ipa">d̪ˠ</span></td><td><span class="ipa">d̠ʲ</span></td></tr>
<tr><td>l</td><td><span class="ipa">l̪ˠ</span> (dental) or <span class="ipa">lˠ</span></td><td><span class="ipa">l̠ʲ</span> (postalveolar) or <span class="ipa">lʲ</span></td></tr>
<tr><td>n</td><td><span class="ipa">n̪ˠ</span> (dental) or <span class="ipa">nˠ</span></td><td><span class="ipa">n̠ʲ</span> (postalveolar) or <span class="ipa">nʲ</span></td></tr>
<tr><td>r</td><td><span class="ipa">ɾˠ</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ɾʲ</span></td></tr>
<tr><td>s</td><td><span class="ipa">sˠ</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ʃ</span></td></tr>
<tr><td>g</td><td><span class="ipa">ɡ</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ɟ</span></td></tr>
<tr><td>c</td><td><span class="ipa">k</span></td><td><span class="ipa">c</span></td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>Minimal Pairs</h4>
<p>Broad vs slender quality distinguishes meaning:</p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Broad (velarized)</th>
<th>IPA</th>
<th>Meaning</th>
<th>Slender (palatalized)</th>
<th>IPA</th>
<th>Meaning</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>bó</td>
<td><span class="ipa">bˠoː</span></td>
<td>cow</td>
<td>beo</td>
<td><span class="ipa">bʲoː</span></td>
<td>alive</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>cá</td>
<td><span class="ipa">kɑː</span></td>
<td>where</td>
<td>cé</td>
<td><span class="ipa">ceː</span></td>
<td>who</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>lán</td>
<td><span class="ipa">l̪ˠɑːn̪ˠ</span></td>
<td>full</td>
<td>léan</td>
<td><span class="ipa">l̠ʲeːn̪ˠ</span></td>
<td>sorrow</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>geal</td>
<td><span class="ipa">ɟalˠ</span></td>
<td>bright</td>
<td>gil</td>
<td><span class="ipa">ɟɪlʲ</span></td>
<td>gel</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="vowel-length">Vowel Length & Quality</h3>
<p>Irish distinguishes long and short vowels phonemically. Short vowels are lax; long vowels are tense.</p>
<h4>Long Vowels</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>Fada-marked</strong>: á, é, í, ó, ú are always long (á → [ɑː], é → [eː], í → [iː], ó → [oː], ú → [uː])</li>
<li><strong>Digraphs</strong>: Many vowel digraphs represent a single long vowel or diphthong:
<em>ao</em> → [iː], <em>eo</em> → [oː]/[ɔː], <em>ía</em> → [iə], <em>úa</em> → [uə]</li>
<li><strong>Vowel lengthening before geminates</strong>: Short vowels lengthen before heavy sonorant
clusters in monosyllables: <em>ceann</em> → [cɑːn̪ˠ], <em>poll</em> → [pˠoːl̪ˠ]</li>
</ul>
<h4>Short Vowels</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>a</strong> → [a] (front), <strong>o</strong> → [ɔ], <strong>u</strong> → [ʊ],
<strong>i</strong> → [ɪ], <strong>e</strong> → [ɛ]</li>
<li><strong>Unstressed reduction</strong>: Unstressed short vowels reduce to schwa [ə]</li>
<li><strong>Vowel gradation</strong>: Short vowels can raise/lower depending on coda consonant quality
(Connacht: broad coda keeps [a], slender coda raises to [ɛ])</li>
</ul>
<h4>The Pairing Principle</h4>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Letter</th>
<th>Long IPA</th>
<th>Short IPA</th>
<th>Long Example</th>
<th>Short Example</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>a/á</td>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɑː/</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">/a/</span></td>
<td>cás <span class="ipa">/kɑːsˠ/</span></td>
<td>cas <span class="ipa">/kasˠ/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>e/é</td>
<td><span class="ipa">/eː/</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɛ/</span></td>
<td>sé <span class="ipa">/ʃeː/</span></td>
<td>se <span class="ipa">/ʃɛ/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>i/í</td>
<td><span class="ipa">/iː/</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɪ/</span></td>
<td>sí <span class="ipa">/ʃiː/</span></td>
<td>si <span class="ipa">/ʃɪ/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>o/ó</td>
<td><span class="ipa">/oː/</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">/ɔ/</span></td>
<td>bó <span class="ipa">/bˠoː/</span></td>
<td>bo <span class="ipa">/bˠɔ/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>u/ú</td>
<td><span class="ipa">/uː/</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">/ʊ/</span></td>
<td>tú <span class="ipa">/t̪ˠuː/</span></td>
<td>tu <span class="ipa">/t̪ˠʊ/</span></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="stress">Stress Patterns</h3>
<p>Irish stress patterns vary dramatically by dialect — this is one of the most distinctive differences.</p>
<h4>Connacht & Ulster: Initial Stress</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>Default rule</strong>: Primary stress falls on the first syllable: <em>cailín</em> [ˈkalʲiːnʲ],
<em>Gaeltacht</em> [ˈɡeːl̪ˠt̪ˠəxt̪ˠ]</li>
<li><strong>Compounds</strong>: First component carries primary stress: <em>Gaeltacht</em> [ˈɡeːl̪ˠt̪ˠəxt̪ˠ],
<em>deirfiúr</em> [ˈdʲɛɾʲəfʲuːɾʲ]</li>
<li><strong>Second syllable stress</strong>: A small set of a-prefixed adverbs take second-syllable stress:
<em>arís</em> [əˈɾʲiːʃ], <em>amach</em> [əˈmˠax]</li>
</ul>
<h4>Munster: Stress Attraction</h4>
<p>Munster stress is attracted to the first long vowel or diphthong after the first syllable (Hickey II.3, Ó Sé):</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Long vowel in σ₂</strong>: Stress moves to σ₂ — <em>cailín</em> [kaˈlʲiːnʲ], <em>Tomáisín</em> [t̪ˠəˌmˠɑːˈʃiːnʲ]</li>
<li><strong>Short + short + long (σ₃)</strong>: Stress lands on σ₃ — <em>ceannasaí</em> [canˠəˈsˠiː]</li>
<li><strong>-(e)acht attraction</strong>: Short σ₁ + -(e)acht in σ₂ attracts stress unless the σ₂ onset
is a sonorant (r/l/n/h): <em>portach</em> [pəɾˠˈt̪ˠɑx] vs <em>ocrach</em> [ˈɔkɾˠəx]</li>
<li><strong>Verbal resistance</strong>: Synthetic verb endings resist attraction: <em>freastalaím</em> [ˈfʲɾʲasˠt̪ˠəlˠiːmʲ]</li>
</ul>
<h3 id="lenition">Lenition (Séimhiú)</h3>
<p>Lenition is a grammatical mutation triggered by specific contexts (possessive adjectives, past tense, etc.).
It adds ⟨h⟩ after the consonant and changes its pronunciation:</p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Radical</th>
<th>Lenited</th>
<th>IPA Broad</th>
<th>IPA Slender</th>
<th>Note</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td>b</td><td>bh</td><td><span class="ipa">/vˠ/</span></td><td><span class="ipa">/vʲ/</span></td><td>Often [w] after vowels</td></tr>
<tr><td>c</td><td>ch</td><td><span class="ipa">/x/</span></td><td><span class="ipa">/ç/</span></td><td>Velar/palatal fricative</td></tr>
<tr><td>d</td><td>dh</td><td><span class="ipa">/ɣ/</span></td><td><span class="ipa">/j/</span></td><td>Often silent in codas</td></tr>
<tr><td>f</td><td>fh</td><td colspan="2"><span class="ipa">/∅/</span></td><td>Always silent (leaves quality trace)</td></tr>
<tr><td>g</td><td>gh</td><td><span class="ipa">/ɣ/</span></td><td><span class="ipa">/j/</span></td><td>Same as dh when lenited</td></tr>
<tr><td>m</td><td>mh</td><td><span class="ipa">/vˠ/</span></td><td><span class="ipa">/vʲ/</span></td><td>Often [w] after vowels, nasalized in Ulster</td></tr>
<tr><td>p</td><td>ph</td><td><span class="ipa">/fˠ/</span></td><td><span class="ipa">/fʲ/</span></td><td>Labiodental fricative</td></tr>
<tr><td>s</td><td>sh</td><td><span class="ipa">/h/</span></td><td><span class="ipa">/ç/</span></td><td>Glottal/palatal fricative</td></tr>
<tr><td>t</td><td>th</td><td><span class="ipa">/h/</span></td><td><span class="ipa">/h/ or /ç/</span></td><td>Often silent word-finally</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>Lenition Realizations</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>After vowels</strong>: bh/mh weaken to [w] (or [vˠ]/[vʲ] if sustained): <em>leabhar</em> [l̠ʲauɾˠ],
<em>scríobh</em> [ʃcɾʲiːw]</li>
<li><strong>Intervocalic dh/gh</strong>: Silent or [j]/[ɣ]: <em>fidheall</em> [ˈfʲiːəl̪ˠ], <em>laghad</em> [ˈl̪ˠəid̪ˠ]</li>
<li><strong>Word-final th</strong>: Silent after short vowels: <em>rath</em> [ɾˠa], <em>both</em> [bˠɔ]</li>
<li><strong>fh-</strong>: Always silent: <em>fhuil</em> [wɪlʲ], <em>fhiacail</em> [ˈiəkəlʲ]</li>
</ul>
<h3 id="eclipsis">Eclipsis (Urú)</h3>
<p>Eclipsis is triggered by possessive adjectives (ár, bhur, a), numbers (seacht, ocht, naoi, deich), and
certain prepositions. The eclipsing consonant is a prefix that replaces or modifies the original sound:</p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Radical</th>
<th>Eclipsed</th>
<th>IPA</th>
<th>Example</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td>b</td><td>mb</td><td><span class="ipa">/mˠ/</span></td><td>ár mbád [ɑːɾˠ mˠɑːd̪ˠ]</td></tr>
<tr><td>c</td><td>gc</td><td><span class="ipa">/ɡ/</span></td><td>i gcathair [ə ˈɡahəɾʲ]</td></tr>
<tr><td>d</td><td>nd</td><td><span class="ipa">/n̪ˠ/</span></td><td>ar ndóigh [ɛɾʲ n̪ˠoː]</td></tr>
<tr><td>f</td><td>bhf</td><td><span class="ipa">/w/ or /vˠ/</span></td><td>i bhfeirm [ə ˈwɛɾʲəmʲ]</td></tr>
<tr><td>g</td><td>ng</td><td><span class="ipa">/ŋ/</span></td><td>ár ngarraí [ɑːɾˠ ˈŋaɾˠiː]</td></tr>
<tr><td>p</td><td>bp</td><td><span class="ipa">/bˠ/</span></td><td>i bpáirc [ə ˈbˠɑːɾʲc]</td></tr>
<tr><td>t</td><td>dt</td><td><span class="ipa">/d̪ˠ/</span></td><td>ar dtús [ɛɾʲ d̪ˠuːsˠ]</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>T-Prefix Mutation (not eclipsis)</h4>
<p>Word-initial <strong>ts-</strong> and <strong>tch-</strong> are T-prefix mutations (Hickey III.2.2.2),
not eclipsis. The first consonant survives while the second is silenced:
<strong>ts→t</strong>, <strong>tch→t</strong> (e.g. <em>túis</em> → [t̪ˠuːʃ]).</p>
<h3 id="vowel-digraphs">Vowel Digraphs & Diphthongs</h3>
<p>Irish has many vowel digraphs whose pronunciation varies by dialect:</p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Digraph</th>
<th>Connacht</th>
<th>Munster</th>
<th>Ulster</th>
<th>Example (Connacht)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td>ao</td><td><span class="ipa">iː</span></td><td><span class="ipa">eː</span></td><td><span class="ipa">iː</span></td><td>aon [iːn̪ˠ]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ai</td><td><span class="ipa">a</span></td><td><span class="ipa">a</span></td><td><span class="ipa">a</span></td><td>caint [kan̠ʲtʲ]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ea</td><td><span class="ipa">a</span></td><td><span class="ipa">a</span></td><td><span class="ipa">a</span></td><td>fear [fʲaɾˠ]</td></tr>
<tr><td>eo</td><td><span class="ipa">oː</span></td><td><span class="ipa">oː</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ɔː</span></td><td>beo [bʲoː]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ío</td><td><span class="ipa">iː</span></td><td><span class="ipa">iː</span></td><td><span class="ipa">iː</span></td><td>críochnaigh [ˈkɾʲiːxn̪ˠiː]</td></tr>
<tr><td>oi</td><td><span class="ipa">ɔ</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ɔi</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ɔi</span></td><td>scoil [skɔlʲ]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ui</td><td><span class="ipa">ʊ</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ʊi</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ʊi</span></td><td>suil [sˠʊlʲ]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ua</td><td><span class="ipa">uə</span></td><td><span class="ipa">uə</span></td><td><span class="ipa">uə</span></td><td>cuan [kuən̪ˠ]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ia</td><td><span class="ipa">iə</span></td><td><span class="ipa">iə</span></td><td><span class="ipa">iə</span></td><td>biadh [bʲiə]</td></tr>
<tr><td>éi</td><td><span class="ipa">eː</span></td><td><span class="ipa">eː</span></td><td><span class="ipa">eː</span></td><td>réis [ɾˠeːʃ]</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="consonant-clusters">Consonant Clusters</h3>
<p>Irish simplifies complex initial and medial clusters through phonological rules:</p>
<h4>Initial Cluster Simplification</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>cn→cr</strong>, <strong>gn→gr</strong>, <strong>mn→mr</strong>, <strong>tn→tr</strong>:
The non-coronal element survives and a liquid appears: <em>cnoc</em> → [kɾˠɔk], <em>gnáth</em> → [ɡɾˠɑːh]</li>
<li><strong>ts- / tch-</strong>: T-prefix mutation → first consonant survives, second silenced:
<em>tsúil</em> → [t̪ˠuːlʲ], <em>tsean</em> → [t̠ʲanˠ]</li>
</ul>
<h4>Medial Clusters</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>s+stop heterosyllabic</strong>: s closes the preceding syllable, stop starts the next:
<em>aistriú</em> → [aʃ.ˈtʲɾʲuː]</li>
<li><strong>Sonorant+obstruent</strong>: May trigger epenthesis (see below)</li>
<li><strong>n→ŋ before velar stops</strong>: <em>seanchaí</em> → [ˈʃanˠxiː] but <em>slán go fóill</em> → [sˠl̪ˠɑːŋ ɡə fˠoːlʲ]</li>
</ul>
<h3 id="epenthesis">Epenthesis (Svarabhakti)</h3>
<p>Irish inserts a short epenthetic vowel [ə] (or [ɪ] in some contexts) between consonants in certain clusters:</p>
<h4>Connacht & Ulster</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>Heterorganic sonorant+obstruent</strong>: Insert [ə] when the preceding vowel is short and stressed:
<em>dearg</em> [ˈdʲaɾˠəɡ], <em>gorm</em> [ˈɡɔɾˠəmˠ], <em>seilg</em> [ˈʃɛlʲəɟ]</li>
<li><strong>Exclusions</strong>: Homorganic clusters (rd, rl, rn, nd, ld, nn, ll, rr) do not epenthesize</li>
<li><strong>Lexical exceptions</strong>: -airg, -eirg → [ɪ] not [ə]: <em>tairg</em> [ˈt̪ˠaɾʲɪɟ]</li>
</ul>
<h4>Munster (Extended Epenthesis)</h4>
<p>Munster extends epenthesis to obstruent+sonorant clusters after the stressed syllable (Ó Sé):</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>m+n</strong>: <em>feamnach</em> [ˈfʲamˠən̪ˠəx]</li>
<li><strong>g+l</strong>: <em>eagla</em> [ˈaɡəl̪ˠə]</li>
<li><strong>d+r</strong>: <em>eadrainn</em> [ˈad̪ˠəɾˠən̠ʲ]</li>
<li><strong>th+r</strong>: <em>cathrach</em> [ˈkahəɾˠəx]</li>
<li><strong>ch+r</strong>: <em>achrann</em> [ˈaxəɾˠən̪ˠ]</li>
<li><strong>s+r</strong>: <em>lasrach</em> [ˈl̪ˠɑsˠəɾˠəx]</li>
<li><strong>th+n</strong>: <em>aithne</em> [ˈahənʲə]</li>
<li>Also applies in pre-stress position when stress attraction moves stress off the cluster's syllable:
<em>Colmán</em> [kəl̪ˠəˈmˠɑːn̪ˠ], <em>purgóid</em> [pˠəɾˠəˈɡoːdʲ]</li>
</ul>
<h3 id="sonorants">Sonorants: L, N, R</h3>
<p>Irish has a famously complex sonorant system with four-way l/n distinctions and three-way r distinctions:</p>
<h4>L and N</h4>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Context</th>
<th>Broad l</th>
<th>Slender l</th>
<th>Broad n</th>
<th>Slender n</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>Before consonant (coda)</td>
<td><span class="ipa">l̪ˠ</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">l̠ʲ</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">n̪ˠ</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">n̠ʲ</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Intervocalic / initial</td>
<td><span class="ipa">l̪ˠ</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">lʲ</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">n̪ˠ</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">nʲ</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Geminate (ll, nn)</td>
<td><span class="ipa">l̪ˠ</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">l̠ʲ</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">n̪ˠ</span></td>
<td><span class="ipa">n̠ʲ</span></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>R</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>Broad r</strong>: Alveolar tap [ɾˠ] — <em>rá</em> [ɾˠɑː], <em>carraig</em> [ˈkaɾˠəɟ]</li>
<li><strong>Slender r</strong>: Palatalized tap [ɾʲ] — <em>rí</em> [ɾʲiː], <em>tirim</em> [ˈtʲɪɾʲəmʲ]</li>
<li><strong>Geminate rr</strong>: Broad only [ɾˠ] (lengthening effect on preceding vowel) — <em>carraig</em> [ˈkaɾˠəɟ]</li>
</ul>
<h4>Vowel Lengthening Before Sonorants</h4>
<p>Short vowels lengthen in monosyllables before geminate sonorants (ll, nn, rr, mm) and heavy clusters
(rd, rl, rn):</p>
<ul>
<li><em>ceann</em> [cɑːn̪ˠ], <em>poll</em> [pˠoːl̪ˠ], <em>corr</em> [koːɾˠ]</li>
<li><em>ard</em> [ɑːɾˠd̪ˠ], <em>bord</em> [bˠoːɾˠd̪ˠ], <em>tarna</em> [ˈt̪ˠɑːɾˠn̪ˠə]</li>