@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import base64
 import functools
 import inspect
 import json
@@ -217,11 +218,7 @@ def convert_result(self, result: Any) -> CallToolResult | InputRequiredResult:
         # The tool hands back Python-side names; the wire (and outputSchema) use aliases.
         adapter = self._output_adapter(output_model)
         validated = adapter.validate_python(result, by_alias=True, by_name=True)
-        if isinstance(validated, BaseModel):
-            # Dump via the instance so a returned subclass keeps its own fields.
-            structured_content = validated.model_dump(mode="json", by_alias=True)
-        else:
-            structured_content = adapter.dump_python(validated, mode="json", by_alias=True)
+        structured_content = _dump_structured(validated, adapter)
 
         return CallToolResult(content=unstructured_content, structured_content=structured_content)
 
@@ -621,6 +618,69 @@ def _create_wrapped_model(func_name: str, annotation: Any) -> type[BaseModel]:
     return create_model(model_name, result=annotation)
 
 
+def _base64_encode(data: bytes | bytearray | memoryview) -> str:
+    return base64.b64encode(bytes(data)).decode("ascii")
+
+
+def _has_bytes(value: Any) -> bool:
+    """Whether a python-mode dump (or a raw value) carries bytes anywhere."""
+    if isinstance(value, bytes | bytearray | memoryview):
+        return True
+    if isinstance(value, dict):
+        return any(_has_bytes(item) for item in cast("dict[Any, Any]", value).values())
+    if isinstance(value, list | tuple | set | frozenset):
+        return any(_has_bytes(item) for item in cast("list[Any]", value))
+    if isinstance(value, BaseModel):
+        return _has_bytes(value.model_dump(mode="python", by_alias=True))
+    return False
+
+
+def _json_safe(value: Any) -> Any:
+    """Base64-encode bytes leaves; JSON-encode every other leaf as mode="json" would."""
+    if isinstance(value, bytes | bytearray | memoryview):
+        return _base64_encode(cast("bytes | bytearray | memoryview", value))
+    if isinstance(value, dict):
+        return {key: _json_safe(item) for key, item in cast("dict[Any, Any]", value).items()}
+    if isinstance(value, list | tuple | set | frozenset):
+        return [_json_safe(item) for item in cast("list[Any]", value)]
+    if isinstance(value, BaseModel):
+        return _json_safe(value.model_dump(mode="python", by_alias=True))
+    if value is None or isinstance(value, str | int | float | bool):
+        return value
+    return json.loads(pydantic_core.to_json(value, fallback=str))
+
+
+def _result_json_text(value: Any) -> str:
+    """JSON text for an unstructured result, base64-encoding bytes leaves."""
+    if _has_bytes(value):
+        value = _json_safe(value)
+    return pydantic_core.to_json(value, fallback=str, indent=2).decode()
+
+
+def _dump_structured(validated: Any, adapter: TypeAdapter[Any]) -> Any:
+    """Dump validated structured output as JSON, base64-encoding bytes leaves.
+
+    ``mode="json"`` decodes bytes as UTF-8 and raises on binary data, so a
+    payload carrying bytes is dumped in Python mode with those leaves
+    base64-encoded first — the encoding every other bytes path in this package
+    uses (BlobResourceContents, Image/Audio content). A payload without bytes
+    takes the plain JSON dump, byte for byte.
+    """
+    dumped = (
+        # Dump via the instance so a returned subclass keeps its own fields.
+        validated.model_dump(mode="python", by_alias=True)
+        if isinstance(validated, BaseModel)
+        else adapter.dump_python(validated, mode="python", by_alias=True)
+    )
+    if _has_bytes(dumped):
+        return _json_safe(dumped)
+    return (
+        validated.model_dump(mode="json", by_alias=True)
+        if isinstance(validated, BaseModel)
+        else adapter.dump_python(validated, mode="json", by_alias=True)
+    )
+
+
 def _convert_to_content(result: Any) -> list[ContentBlock]:
     """Convert a result to a sequence of content objects.
 
@@ -649,7 +709,11 @@ def _convert_to_content(result: Any) -> list[ContentBlock]:
             )
         )
 
+    if isinstance(result, bytes | bytearray | memoryview):
+        # Binary payloads cannot survive JSON verbatim; publish them base64-encoded.
+        return [TextContent(type="text", text=_base64_encode(cast("bytes | bytearray | memoryview", result)))]
+
     if not isinstance(result, str):
-        result = pydantic_core.to_json(result, fallback=str, indent=2).decode()
+        result = _result_json_text(result)
 
     return [TextContent(type="text", text=result)]
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 # pyright: reportMissingParameterType=false
 # pyright: reportUnknownArgumentType=false
 # pyright: reportUnknownLambdaType=false
+import base64
 from collections.abc import Callable
 from dataclasses import dataclass
 from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Annotated, Any, Final, NamedTuple, TypedDict
@@ -724,6 +725,102 @@ def func_bytes() -> bytes:  # pragma: no cover
     }
 
 
+PNG_MAGIC = b"\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n\x00\x00\x00\rIHDR\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x01"
+
+
+def test_bytes_result_is_base64_encoded_in_both_channels():
+    """Binary tool results are delivered base64-encoded in both channels.
+
+    Pins the #3554 fix: mode="json" decodes bytes as UTF-8 and used to raise on
+    the first non-UTF-8 byte, failing the whole tool call.
+    """
+
+    def read_thumbnail() -> bytes:  # pragma: no cover
+        return PNG_MAGIC
+
+    meta = func_metadata(read_thumbnail)
+    encoded = base64.b64encode(PNG_MAGIC).decode()
+
+    result = meta.convert_result(PNG_MAGIC)
+
+    assert isinstance(result, CallToolResult)
+    assert not result.is_error
+    assert result.structured_content == {"result": encoded}
+    assert len(result.content) == 1
+    assert isinstance(result.content[0], TextContent)
+    assert result.content[0].text == encoded
+
+
+def test_utf8_bytes_result_is_base64_encoded():
+    """UTF-8-decodable bytes take the same base64 encoding as binary bytes."""
+
+    def read_note() -> bytes:  # pragma: no cover
+        return b"hello"
+
+    meta = func_metadata(read_note)
+
+    result = meta.convert_result(b"hello")
+
+    assert isinstance(result, CallToolResult)
+    assert result.structured_content == {"result": base64.b64encode(b"hello").decode()}
+
+
+def test_bytes_field_in_output_model_is_base64_encoded():
+    """A bytes field inside an output model is base64-encoded, not a crash."""
+
+    class Thumb(BaseModel):
+        data: bytes
+
+    def get_thumbnail() -> Thumb:  # pragma: no cover
+        return Thumb(data=PNG_MAGIC)
+
+    meta = func_metadata(get_thumbnail)
+
+    result = meta.convert_result(Thumb(data=PNG_MAGIC))
+
+    assert isinstance(result, CallToolResult)
+    assert not result.is_error
+    assert result.structured_content == {"data": base64.b64encode(PNG_MAGIC).decode()}
+
+
+def test_bytes_inside_generic_result_is_base64_encoded():
+    """bytes nested in a generic result are base64-encoded leaf by leaf."""
+
+    def two_blobs() -> list[bytes]:  # pragma: no cover
+        return [PNG_MAGIC, b"hello"]
+
+    def blob_map() -> dict[str, bytes]:  # pragma: no cover
+        return {"a": PNG_MAGIC}
+
+    listed = func_metadata(two_blobs).convert_result([PNG_MAGIC, b"hello"])
+    mapped = func_metadata(blob_map).convert_result({"a": PNG_MAGIC})
+
+    assert isinstance(listed, CallToolResult)
+    assert listed.structured_content == {
+        "result": [base64.b64encode(PNG_MAGIC).decode(), base64.b64encode(b"hello").decode()]
+    }
+    assert isinstance(mapped, CallToolResult)
+    assert mapped.structured_content == {"a": base64.b64encode(PNG_MAGIC).decode()}
+
+
+def test_result_without_bytes_is_serialized_unchanged():
+    """Payloads without bytes keep the plain JSON serialization, byte for byte."""
+
+    def get_note() -> str:  # pragma: no cover
+        return "hello"
+
+    def get_count() -> int:  # pragma: no cover
+        return 7
+
+    noted = func_metadata(get_note).convert_result("hello")
+    counted = func_metadata(get_count).convert_result(7)
+
+    assert isinstance(noted, CallToolResult)
+    assert noted.structured_content == {"result": "hello"}
+    assert isinstance(counted, CallToolResult)
+    assert counted.structured_content == {"result": 7}
+
+
 def test_structured_output_generic_types():
     """Test structured output with generic types (list, dict, Union, etc.)"""
 
 
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 # pyright: reportUnknownVariableType=false
 # pyright: reportUnknownArgumentType=false
 
+import base64
 import json
 
 import pytest
@@ -47,6 +48,7 @@
     tool_progress,
 )
 from mcp.client import Client, ClientRequestContext, IncomingMessage
+from mcp.server.mcpserver import MCPServer
 
 pytestmark = pytest.mark.anyio
 
@@ -342,3 +344,27 @@ async def test_structured_output() -> None:
         assert "sunny" in result_text  # condition
         assert "45" in result_text  # humidity
         assert "5.2" in result_text  # wind_speed
+
+
+async def test_binary_tool_result_is_base64_encoded() -> None:
+    """A tool returning binary bytes delivers base64 in both channels, not an error.
+
+    Pins the #3554 fix: mode="json" used to raise on non-UTF-8 bytes, so the
+    tool call failed before the payload reached the client.
+    """
+    server = MCPServer("Binary Result")
+
+    @server.tool()
+    def read_thumbnail() -> bytes:
+        """Return PNG magic bytes."""
+        return b"\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n\x00\x00"
+
+    async with Client(server) as client:
+        result = await client.call_tool("read_thumbnail", {})
+
+    encoded = base64.b64encode(b"\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n\x00\x00").decode()
+    assert not result.is_error
+    assert result.structured_content == {"result": encoded}
+    assert len(result.content) == 1
+    assert isinstance(result.content[0], TextContent)
+    assert result.content[0].text == encoded